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The topic of this chapter is learning—the relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that is the result of experience. Although you might think of learning in terms of what you need to do before an upcoming exam, the knowledge that you take away from your classes, or new skills that you acquire through practice, these changes represent only one component of learning.
Learning is perhaps the most important human capacity. Learning allows us to create effective lives by being able to respond to changes. We learn to avoid touching hot stoves, to find our way home from school, and to remember which people have helped us in the past and which people have been unkind. Without the ability to learn from our experiences, our lives would be remarkably dangerous and inefficient. The principles of learning can also be used to explain a wide variety of social interactions, including social dilemmas in which people make important, and often selfish, decisions about how to behave by calculating the costs and benefits of different outcomes.
The study of learning is closely associated with the behaviorist school of psychology, in which it was seen as an alternative scientific perspective to the failure of introspection. The behaviorists, including John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, focused their research entirely on behavior, to the exclusion of any kinds of mental processes. For behaviorists, the fundamental aspect of learning is the process of conditioning—the ability to connect stimuli (the changes that occur in the environment) with responses (behaviors or other actions).
But conditioning is just one type of learning. We will also consider other types, including learning through insight, as well as observational learning (also known as modeling). In each case we will see not only what psychologists have learned about the topics but also the important influence that learning has on many aspects of our everyday lives.
Translation - Indonesian Bab 7
Pembelajaran
Topik yang dibahas dalam bab ini adalah pembelajaran – perubahan yang relative permanen dalam pengetahuan atau perilaku yang merupakan hasil dari pengalaman. Walaupun mungkin anda membayangkan pembelajaran dalam hal-hal yang perlu anda lakukan sebelum ujuan yang akan dating, pengetahuan yang anda dapatkan dari kelas anda, atau ketrampilan baru yang anda peroleh melalui praktek, perubahan ini hanyalah merupakan salah satu komponen dari pembelajaran.
Mungkin pembelajaranlah kapasitas terpenting manusia. Pembelajaran memungkinkan kita dapat menciptakan kehidupan yang efektif dengan mampu merespon perubahan. Kita belajar menghindari jangan sampai menyentuh tungku perapian, menemukan jalan pulang ke rumah dari sekolah dan mengingat siapa saja yang pernah menolong kita di masa lalu dan siapa-siapa yang tidak baik. Tanpa kemampuan untuk belajar dari pengalaman, hidup kita akan sangat berbahaya dan tidak efisien. Dasar-dasar pembelajaran juga dapat digunakan untuk menjelaskan berbagai interaksi social, termasuk dilemma social dimana orang mengambil keputusan penting, dan tidak jarang secara egois, tentang bagaimana berperilaku dengan memperhitungkan biaya dan manfaat dari hasil-hasil yang berbeda.
Kajian tentang pembelajaran terkait erat dengan jurusan ahli perilaku dari psikologi, dimana dalam jurusan ini pembelajaran dipandang sebagai suatu perspektif ilmiah alternative terhadap kegagalan introspeksi. Ahli perilaku, termasuk John B. Watson dan B.F. Skinner, memfokuskan penelitian mereka sepenuhnya pada perilaku, dengan mengesampingkan segala jenis proses mental. Bagi ahli perilaku, aspek dasar dari pembelajaran adalah proses pengkondisian – kemampuan untuk mengkaitkan stimulus (perubahan yang terjadi dalam lingkungan) dengan respon (perilaku atau tindakan lainnya).
Tetapi pengkondisian hanyalah salah satu jenis pembelajaran. Kita juga akan mengkaji jenis-jenis pembelajaran lainnya, termasuk pembelajaran melalui pengertian yang mendalam dan juga pembelajaran observasional (juga dikenal sebagai pemodelan). Dalam setiap kasus kita bukan hanya melihat apa yang dipelajari psikolog tentang topic tetapi juga pengaruh penting dari pembelajaran tersebut pada banyak aspek kehidupan kita sehari-hari.
Indonesian to English: Skin Tag
Source text - Indonesian SKIN TAG
Skin tag merupakan tumor jinak kulit berbentuk sessile atau pedunkulasi yang sering timbul pada regio colli dan fleksura berwarna kecoklatan atau sewarna dengan kulit. Skin tag sering ditemukan pada individu obesitas, umumnya terdapat pada daerah lipatan atau daerah yang sering mengalami gesekan.1,2 Prevalensi skin tag pada populasi umum cukup bervariasi dengan kejadian pada laki-laki dan perempuan umumnya sama dan dapat timbul pada berbagai rentang usia.
Penyebab skin tag belum diketahui secara pasti walaupun beberapa faktor diduga memiliki peran dalam patogenesis skin tag. Hingga saat ini telah banyak teori-teori yang menjelaskan patogenesis terjadinya skin tag, diantaranya proses garukan atau gesekan yang berulang pada kulit, faktor keturunan di dalam keluarga, hormonal, serta obesitas, selain itu beberapa penelitian juga mengungkapkan bahwa gangguan metabolisme karbohidrat dan insulin, serta gangguan metabolisme lipid dan hormon leptin berperan dalam patogenesis terjadinya skin tag.
Individu dengan obesitas lebih sering mengalami skin tag dibandingkan individu dengan indeks massa tubuh (IMT) normal. Beberapa penelitian terbaru menunjukkan peran gangguan metabolisme karbohidrat dan lemak serta terdapat peran beberapa hormon terkait, misalnya insulin dan hormon leptin dalam patogenesis terjadinya skin tag. Skin tag berhubungan dengan resistensi leptin pada individu dengan obesitas. Obesitas pada manusia berhubungan dengan tingginya kadar leptin dalam tubuh dan pada akhirnya menimbulkan resistensi terhadap leptin.
Leptin merupakan suatu protein produk gen obesitas (ob) yang mempunyai kemampuan dalam menstimulasi faktor-faktor pertumbuhan, diferensiasi, dan proliferasi sel-sel epitel pada dermis dan epidermis. Ikatan leptin dan reseptornya di kulit dapat meningkatkan proliferasi dan diferensiasi sel-sel keratinosit dan fibroblast dan hal ini diduga berperan dalam patogenesis skin tag.
Translation - English SKIN TAG
Skin tags are benign skin tumors in the form of sessile or pedunculation which often arise in the region of colli and flexure with brownish or skin-like color. Skin tags are often found in individuals with obesity which are generally found in the folds or areas that often experience friction. Skin tag prevalence in the general population varies considerably with the incidence in men and women generally the same and can occur in various age ranges.
The cause of skin tags is not known with certainty even though several factors are thought to have a role in the pathogenesis of skin tags. Until now there have been many theories explaining the pathogenesis of the occurrence of skin tags, including the process of repeated scratching or friction in the skin, factors of heredity in the family, hormonal, and obesity. In addition, several studies also revealed that disturbances of carbohydrate and insulin metabolism, as well as disorders of lipid and leptin hormone metabolism play a role in the pathogenesis of skin tags.
Individuals with obesity experience more skin tags than individuals with normal body mass index (BMI). Several recent studies have shown the role played by disorders of carbohydrate and fat metabolism, as well as the role of several related hormones, such as insulin and leptin in the pathogenesis of skin tags. Skin tags are associated with leptin resistance in obese individuals. Obesity in humans is associated with high levels of leptin in the body and ultimately leads to leptin resistance.
Leptin is a protein of obesity (ob) gene product which has the ability to stimulate growth factors, differentiation, and proliferation of epithelial cells in the dermis and epidermis. Leptin bonds and their receptors in the skin can increase the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocyte and fibroblast cells, and this is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of skin tags.
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Years of experience: 23. Registered at ProZ.com: Oct 2018.
I am a Freelance Translator for English <=> Indonesian in Medan. I have been translating since I was a student in the 80s, especially in the field of Science and Mathematics. I specialize in translating these two fields because my Bachelor's education background is Mathematics. But in this translation profession, I also often translate the Medical and Theological fields.
In the translation I worked on, I used to translate various materials such as text, brochures, bulletins, reports, minutes, feasibility studies, journals, scientific papers, books and also textbooks. My clients come from a variety of professions ranging from individuals, such as Undergraduate, Postgraduate and Doctoral students, companies, private institutions to government institutions.
I am happy to work with any party that needs my services, and deadlines are an integral part of my daily tasks.
Keywords: translator, freelancer, translation, indonesian
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